Fordism Spawning New Management Styles Essay - 2772 Words

Introduction. In this essay the focus is on Henry Ford and Fordism. The first paragraph of the essay is an introduction of Fredrick W Taylor, and how Fordism is derived from the ideas of Taylorism. It also looks at the main ideas behind Fordism and scientific management. Further in the essay the importance is to look at the different ideas of Fordism (the mass-production, the $5 day, the division of labour and management style), and on why it was important at is time and the effect following from those ideas. The essay has two different paragraphs discussing the positive and the negative effects of Fordism on management and organisations, and workers and society. In the end of the essay there is some paragraphs about the new forms of†¦show more content†¦(Fred Thompson 2007) But whit the mass production, it was also a small differentiation in the products, in Ford’s case the cars, and one example for that was Henry Ford once saying â€Å" you can have the car in what ever colour you like, as long as its black†. Fordism led the transformation from an agriculture to an economy growing because of mass production and mass consumption. (Fred Thompson 2007)The mass production and mass consumption led to an economic growth and widespread material advancement (Fred Thomsen 2007; Robert Boyer 2010) One of the main principle of Fordism was the $5 day, which was double the normal pay and working less hours for those who were qualified, so the workers would stay loyal and work efficient, but also so his own workers would be able to afford the car he was producing, and the demand for Ford cars would increase. But for the workers to be qualified they had to have a satisfactory life-stile, like absence from alcohol (RMIT University 2012) But the $5 day was criticised, from example the socialist daily news people, saying is was a scheme to make it difficult for the competitors, but in the general public the $5 days was perceived as a risky move, but also bold, democratic and magnanimous. (Ray Batchelor 199 4) It have also been said that Fordism and it higher wages led to productivity growth, economic growth but also an

Mexico Gulf of Mexico Free Essays

Mexico is a beautiful country situated in North America, delimited on the on the east by the Gulf of Mexico, on the southeast by Guatemala, on the south and west by the North Pacific Ocean, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and north by the United States. The United Mexican States consist of a legitimate republican federation of thirty-one states and a central district, Mexico City, is considered to be one of the most densely inhabited cities on globe. The Mexican Revolution was an interlude of political, military and social conflict and mayhem that set in motion with the call over armaments made on November 20 1910 by Francisco I. We will write a custom essay sample on Mexico Gulf of Mexico or any similar topic only for you Order Now Madero, a politician, author and revolutionary who served as President of Mexico from 1911 to 1913, and lasted until 1921. It is anticipated that the war killed nine hundred thousand of the 1910 population of fifteen million. The preliminary epoch of armed conflict terminated in the removal from power of dictator Porfirio Dà ­az Mori, a Mexican-American War volunteer, French intrusion hero, and President   who ruled Mexico from 1876 to 1880 and from 1884 to 1911, and Madero’s rise to presidency. Madero was thrown out in 1913 and the state was swallowed up in civil war, as more than a few political and armed groups raised war against each other for being in command of the nation. A most important stride towards the end of armed conflict caught up the dissemination of the current constitution of Mexico in 1917, the official end of the insurrection. On the other hand, conflict and political unrest such as the Cristero War continued up to the late 1920s. Factory or slaughterhouse worker in Mexico City had faced unacceptable obstacles before the Mexican revolution in 1910, in exercising their rights to join independent unions, bargain collectively, and hold strikes. By 1879, revolutionary thoughts had spread all through the budding Mexican labor movement La Social had sixty two provincial units and about five thousand people were present at its 1879 symposium. Its paper, La International, made social insurrection, social revolution, and the elimination of all governments and the formation of a â€Å"universal social republic† indispensable. That would put the last touches on all national boundaries. Many of the newspaper’s articles from San Antonio narrate prejudice suffered by the rural and urban Factory and slaughterhouse workers in Mexico, the sleaze and venality of government bureaucrats in that state, the complicity of foreign based resources with the Dà ­az regime, and the inevitability of terminating the dictatorship. From 1895 to 1911 with on the increase foreign supremacy of the economy came beyond doubt ruthless working conditions. Capitalism, free of state parameter, subjugated Factories and slaughterhouses. A necessary social arrangement with hospitals, wellbeing reimbursement, schools, and housing facility and so on, was not provided by foreign capitalists. Company towns were built for Factory and slaughterhouse workers where their entire families lived in diminutive single rooms. These barrack settlements were little more than massive penitentiaries. Workers were expelled from having guests to put a stop to transaction and communication of ideas. Industrial contamination coupled with household sewage caused terrible health hazards that carried epidemic after epidemic on the working class. State of affairs was so dreadful in some company towns that even the panorama of starvation could not drive people to work there. The state took action by compulsorily rounding up men, women and children, and compelling them to work as slaves. Every feature of work and living was proscribed. Fines were imposed on Factory and slaughterhouse workers who were then enforced to take out mortgages to pay them off. Thus Factory and slaughterhouse workers faced several obstacles in Mexico City face before and during the revolution. Regardless of the atrocious oppression and unsympathetic circumstances, workers sustained to organize. A number of clandestine workers’ councils and subversive unions were created, often forming a substitute revolutionary culture based on reciprocated aid, as workers endeavored to survive in an atrocious atmosphere. By 1900, some of these organizations became strong as much as necessary to confront the regime inspiring a number of strikes across Mexico. After the wrapping up of Mexican revolution both refugees and Mexican Americans involve themselves in the activities undertaken by labor organizations. The American Federation of Labor naturally repulsed Mexican descent factory and slaughterhouse workers and considered them as prospective strikebreakers, but Tejano workers seek for other alternatives. The membership of La Agrupacià ³n Protectora, founded 1911, comprised of factory and slaughterhouse workers. La Agrupacià ³n called for the fortification of its members from illegitimate reclamations of possessions. Tejanos as well joined an assortment of Socialist associations for instance the different associates of the Socialist party in Texas. Some Tejano factory and slaughterhouse workmen joined unions but however found themselves separated out from Caucasian laborers. Nevertheless, the epoch of the insurrection and World War I brought about an upswing in organizational responsiveness and no doubt improved living and working conditions of factory and slaughterhouse workers especially those of Mexican origin. Politically, Tejanos involved themselves in remonstration activities to bring awareness to the tribulations of their everyday living and working conditions. Aggravated by antagonism against decades old prejudice and disdain, Tejanos finally joined in a movement of armed confrontation against subjugation in 1915. In the conclusion it would relevant to mention that the revolts and wars irrespective of whatever reason instigated cast devastating curse on mankind. These never prove to be beneficiary for any party. Though living and working conditions of factory and slaughterhouse workmen in Mexico improved subsequent to the Mexican revolution in 1910, but due to various deceitful policies of the government the workers still suffer. Reference: Smith, DA; Mexico: A Thousand Revolutions; Alliance Publications; 2001 How to cite Mexico Gulf of Mexico, Essay examples

The Rosenbergs Essay Example For Students

The Rosenbergs Essay The history of the United States is full of unsolved mysteries. One of the greatestmysteries which occurred in 1953 was the electrocution of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg under the Espionage Act. They were convicted for giving the secret information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. The anti-communist sentiment that characterized the Cold War and McCarthyism led to their trial and execution. Even though there is some evidence of the Rosenbergs guilt, numerous facts which were discovered after the death of Ethel and Julius argue more convincingly that they were innocent victims of Cold War hysteria. the United States almost as soon as Nazi Germany was defeated in 1945.(Larsen,24) Before the elections in 1946, the U.S.Chamber of Commerce published a pamphlet which had a title Communist Infiltration in the United States: Its Nature and How to Combat It. This pamphlet was suppose to show that the New Deal programs of Franklin Roosevelt initiated the beginning of communism in the United States. Before World War II, the Communist Party was considered legal. However, starting in 1950, people could be prosecuted if they were members of the Party. (Larsen,24)The Cold War started to develop between the United States and the Soviet Union in the middle of the twentieth century. Senator Joseph R. McCarthy, became the main anti-communistic figure in U.S. government. On February 9,1950 he said that Communism not only threatened capitalism but that Russia was a moral enemy of the United States. (Moss,Wilson,220) He organized HUAC, The House Un-American Activities Committee. McCarthy held hear ings where he asked people whether they have ever participated in communist activities. The ones who answered yes were blacklisted and could not find jobs. People who came before the committee also had an option to take the Fifth. The Fifth Amendment gave people the right against self-incrimination, meaning that they did not have to testify or give evidence against themselves. However, most of the people who took the fifth, were under suspicion. The red scare hysteria grew.(Larsen,25) The Internal Security Act of 1950 made not only political actions illegal but also political beliefs. The word communist became synonymous with the word Russian spy. ( Larsen, 24-27) McCarthy and FBI director J. Edgar Hoover were convinced that the communist spies in the U.S. were selling the secrets of nuclear weapons to the Soviet Union. They arrested many people including Klaus Fuchs who was a member of the Manhattan Project and who was selling information about the atomic bomb to Moscow. McCarthy a nd Hoover began a massive witch-hunt, which led to Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. (Moss,220-222)On July 17, 1950 Julius Rosenberg was arrested for spying and giving secretsabout the atomic bomb to Russia. On August 11,1950 his wife Ethel Rosenberg was arrested on the charge of aiding her husband in spy activities.(Moss, 225) On Friday, June 19, 1953 Ethel and Julius were electrocuted in New York States Sing Sing Prison. Their sons, Michael who was ten and Robert who was six were sent to foster homes and later were adopted by Anne and Abel Meeropol in 1957.(Moss, 224) How did the FBI find out that the Rosenbergs were spying and how did the investigation begin?The investigation began when the FBI found a name, Klaus Fuchs, written in a notebook of a Russian spy. Dr. Fuchs had worked on Manhattan Project (the secret name for the project which worked on the development of the atomic bomb) from 1943 to 1946. When Dr. Fuchs was arrested, he confessed that he was giving the information about the bomb to the Soviet Union. However, Fuchs was not the only one. Harry Gold who was a Philadelphia biochemist said that he was told by his Soviet contact Yakovlev to meet Fuchs in Santa Fe New Mexico on June 2, 1945, where Fuchs would give him scientific information which included data about implosion lens.(Larsen, 29) Afterwards, Gold was sent from Santa Fe to Albuquerque. Yakovlev supposedly gave him a password- I come from Julius and the name and address of a person with whom he was suppose to meet. He also gave Gold a section from a Jello-O box. This section was supposed to match other sections from the Jell-O box which a person in Albuquerque had, and make up a password. As it turned out, when Gold testified for the FBI, the person with whom he met and who gave him the drawings of the lens, was a machinist at Los Alamos- David Greenglass. In June of 1945 Gold finished the whole operation. He gave the material which he received from Fuchs and Greenglass to Yakovlev. David Gree nglass was identified as Ethel Rosenbergs brother. He confessed that he was a spy and that Julius was a leader of the spy ring. However, the list of those accused of spying was not finished yet. The FBI had an interview with Max Elitcher, who was an engineer in the navy. His best friend was a scientist whose name was Morton Sobell. Elitcher said that Julius told him that Sobell was among the others who gave the information about the bomb to Russians. (Larsen, 29-31)On April 5, 1951 the court pronounced its final decisions. David Greenglasswas sentenced to 15 years in prison. His wife Ruth was freed. Gold and Sobell were sentenced to 30 years in prison. Julius and his wife Ethel were sentenced to death. Forty-five years have passed since the electrocution of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, however questions about their case still nag the American psyche. Were the Rosenbergs really guilty of spying for the Soviet Union, providing a Cold War enemy with the secrets of the atomic bomb? Or w ere they convenient victims of Americas anti-communist hysteria, or anti-Semitism, or both?(Pizzo). .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 , .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 .postImageUrl , .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 , .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51:hover , .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51:visited , .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51:active { border:0!important; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51:active , .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51 .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u471e4f6804ddef29f0a5c3aefd3b6c51:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Smoking is the most important single preventable c Essay We will write a custom essay on The Rosenbergs specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Security Council released the Venona files. Those files were encoded KGB files which contained secret Soviet codes. The Venona files provided much evidence that showed that Julius and Ethel Rosenberg participated in a Soviet espionage operation. Feklisov, a former KGB officer, said that he recruited Julius Rosenberg to spy for the Soviet Union in 1943, that he had fifty meetings with Rosenberg, that Rosenberg gave him valuable military information, and that Ethel Rosenberg was aware of her husbands spying but did not participate in intelligence work. (Radosh, Final Verdict) Feklisov also said that Rosenberg stole the plans for a friend and foe device from Emerson Corporation. This device distinguished allied aircraft from enemy aircraft. Julius also stole the proximity fuse. Feklisov testified that a proximity fuse increases the possibility to shoot down enemy planes may be ten.twenty times and that it was used to shoot down the U-2, which put the end to the 1960 summit conference be tween Eisenhower and Khrushchev.(Radosh, Final Verdict) There is also evidence that Jerome Eugene Tartakow, who was an FBI informer and who shared cell with Julius said that Julius told him that he gave secret information to a Russian named Alex. As it turned out, Alex Fomin was a code name which Feklisov used. (Radosh, Final Verdict) A very important piece of information which proves Rosenbergs guilt came from Soviet leader Khrushchev. He said that : The Rosenbergs are people sympathetic to our ideals who did what they could to help the Soviet Union acquire the atom bomb. (Radosh, The Rosenberg File,453) Khrushchev said that he heard from both Stalin and Molotov that The Rosenbergs provided very significant help in accelerating the production of our atom bomb.(Radosh, Proof that Rosenbergs Spied) Even though this evidence mentioned afore seems to prove the Rosenbergs guilt, this evidence is not sufficient. It is illegitimate to believe what other people said about the Rosenbergs a nd draw conclusions from their statements. Much more evidence exists that proves their innocence and that shows that the Rosenbergs deaths remain a blot on American conscience. (Radosh, The Rosenberg File, 453)All the evidence clearly shows that Ethel Rosenberg was not guilty of spying. Ethel was arrested only for one reason: so that she would pressure her husband into telling the names of the other spies who were involved in giving the secret information. As written above, even Feklisov said that Ethel did not participate in her husbands political activities. When Feklisov testified that the Rosenbergs were involved in spying activities, he did not present any documents from the KGB archives. Some documents say that because the state of the Russian pension was awful after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Feklisov could have said anything in exchange for American dollars. (Radosh, Final Verdict) During the release of Venona documents, Rosenbergs sons Robert and Michael said that th ey personally read the documents and that the name of their mother was barely mentioned in them. (Meeropol) There is information which says that the law under which the Rosenbergs were tried, only allowed capital punishment for wartime espionage. The law did not allow the execution of people who spied for the United States wartime allies. A lawyer and civil libertarian Zechariah Chafee wrote to Judge Jerome Frank that: It is absurd to punish the betrayal of Russia in 1944, 1945 with death, when a similar betrayal today, which would be far more injurious to the U.S., would be punished only with life imprisonment.(Radosh, The Rosenberg File,452) There are facts that show that Judge Kaufman was involved in illegal activities. Kaufman discussed the Rosenbergs sentence with the Justice Department prosecution staff before the trial. One of the members of prosecution staff told the FBI that he knew the judge would impose the death penalty if the Rosenbergs were convincted. (Radosh,The Rose nberg File, 428) It is also evident that Judge Kaufman condemned the Rosenbergs to death not because they were spying, but because they were communists who had started the Korean War. Kaufman said: I believe your conduct in putting into the hands of the Russians the A-bomb years before our best scientists predicted Russia would perfect the bomb has already caused, in my opinion, the Communist aggression in Korea, with the resultant casualties exceeding fifty thousand and who knows but that millions more of innocent people may pay the price of your treason.( Tornburn)People are still confused as to why David Greenglass testified against his brother-in -law even though during the court hearings he said that Julius was his hero.(Radosh,The Rosenbeg File, 195) Many facts point to the conclusion that David Greenglass was angry over the family business and he wanted to get Julius and Ethel for it. David Greenglasss ability-or lack of it-was a major reason the business was failing. Custome rs reject bad work. Davids work was bad.(Larsen,37-38)Scientific evidence exists that shows that the Rosenbergs were not guilty of giving information about the bomb. Even if they did give information it was useless. Nobel prize winning physicist Harold C. Urey sent a telegram to the President Eisenhower a couple of days before the Rosenbergs execution in which he wrote that an army mechanic like David Greenglass was wholly incapable of transmitting the physics, chemistry and mathematics of the bomb to anyone.( Radosh,The Rosenberg File, 433) When Philip Morrison, who was a major Los Almos physicist, looked at Greenglasss sketches of the cross section of the bomb, he said that they demonstrate a lack of comprehension and that they do not give any correct quantitative information.( Radosh,The Rosenberg File,432-33) In 1945, the Official Report of the United States Government on Atomic Energy Development for Military Purposes was published. The book was derived from the report which wa s called Atomic Energy for Military Purposes. The Soviet Union received 30,000 copies of the book. It is said that professional, trained scientists could clearly understand what the structure of the bomb was. The Rosenbergs did not really give Russia any unknown secrets (Larsen,38). .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd , .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd .postImageUrl , .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd , .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd:hover , .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd:visited , .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd:active { border:0!important; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd:active , .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ucab14d0f9a2c2a1885e9f241127e1ffd:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Bipolar Disorder EssayIn 1965 there was another discovery which proved the Rosenbergs innocence. Miriam and Walter Schneir wrote a book about their studies of tapes which included Golds statements to his lawyer. In those tapes Gold never said anything about Jell-O box and he said that the password was Benny sent me instead of I come from Julius(Larsen,37). The unfair execution of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg had a significant effect on U.S. society. The execution affected their sons Robert and Michael Meeropol. In 1990, Robert organized The Rosenberg Fund for Children. The purpose of the fund is to help children whose parents have been executed because of their participation in the struggle against war, for Justice of native Americans, in environmental activism and other progressive causes. (Searle) Organizers of the fund try to make a million of dollars every year. (Searle)The book The Rosenbergs also shows that the Rosebergs affected art, prose, poetry and plays. It focuses on the art work of Picasso, Leger, Alice Neel as well as the work of Robert Amerson, Rudolph Baranik, and Sue Coe. Famous fiction, poetry and plays by Adrienne Rich , Robert Coover and Allen Ginsberg, underscore the hold the case has had on the literary imagination. (Okun,161)The execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg on June 19, 1953 for giving secret information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union, will stay in the hearts of both nations, the Soviet Union and the United States. History cannot be turned forty five years back, but most of the evidence proves that Julius and Ethel were innocent victims of the Cold War hysteria. Larsen, Anita. The Rosenbergs. New York:Crestwood House, 1992. Meeropol, Robert and Michael. Michael Meeropol Statement on Ethel and Julius Rosenberg.1995. http://www.english.upenn.edu/afilreis/50s/meeropol/-on-rosenbergs.html (15 Jan. 1998). Moss, Joyce. George Wilson. Profiles in American History. Ed. Carol DeKane Nagel. Vol.7. Detroit: Gale Research, Inc., 1995. Okun, Rob A., ed.The Rosenbergs. New YorkUniverse Books, 1988. Pizzo, Stephen. The Rosenberg Communiques. 1997. http://webreview.com/news/natl/rosenberg/index.html (15 Jan.1998.) Radosh, Ronald. Final Verdict. The New Republic 7 April 1997:12 Radosh, Ronald. Proof the Rosenbergs spied. The New Republic 22 October 1990:9. Radosh, Ronald, and Joyce Milton. The Rosenberg File. New York: Holt,Rinehard and Winston, 1983. Sarle, Betty. The Rosenberg Fund for Children. Social AlternativesOct.1993 :43. Tornburn, David. The Rosenberg Letters. 1997. http://www.-polisci.mit.edu/bostonreview.html (15 Jan. 1998.)Words/ Pages : 2,345 / 24

Definitions and Examples of English Usage

Definitions and Examples of English Usage Usage refers to the conventional ways in which words or phrases are used, spoken, or written in a speech community. There is no official institution (akin to the 500-year-old Acadà ©mie franà §aise, for example) that functions as an authority on how the English language should be used. There are, however, numerous publications, groups, and individuals (style guides, language mavens, and the like) that have attempted to codify (and sometimes dictate) rules of usage. EtymologyFrom Latin,  usus  Ã‚  to use Observations This usage stuff is not straightforward and easy. If ever someone tells you that the rules of English grammar are simple and logical and you should just learn them and obey them, walk away, because youre getting advice from a fool.  (Geoffrey K. Pullum, Does It Really Matter If It Dangles? Language Log, Nov. 20, 2010)The thoughtful, nondichotomous position on language depends on a simple insight: Rules of proper usage are tacit conventions. Conventions are unstated agreements within a community to abide by a single way of doing thingsnot because there is any inherent advantage to the choice, but because there is an advantage to everyone making the same choice. Standardized weights and measures, electrical voltages and cables, computer file formats, the Gregorian calendar, and paper currency are familiar examples.  (Steven Pinker, False Fronts in the Language Wars. Slate, May 31, 2012) The Difference Between Grammar and Usage In this book, grammar refers to the manner in which the language functions, the ways that the blocks of speech and writing are put together. Usage refers to using specific words in a manner that will be thought of as either acceptable or unacceptable. The question of whether or not to split an infinitive is a consideration of grammar; the question of whether one should use literally in a nonliteral sense is one of usage.  (Ammon Shea, Bad English: A History of Linguistic Aggravation. Perigee, 2014) Arbiters of Usage The present-day scholarly concept of usage as a social consensus based on the practices of the educated middle class has emerged only within the last century. For many people, however, the views and aims of the 17th-18c fixers of the language continue to hold true: they consider that there ought to be a single authority capable of providing authoritative guidance about good and bad usage. For them, the model remains that of the Greek and Latin, and they have welcomed arbiters of usage such as Henry Fowler who have based their prescriptions on this model. In spite of this  ... no nation in which English is the main language has yet set up an official institution to monitor and make rules about usage. New words, and new senses and uses of words, are not sanctioned or rejected by the authority of any single body: they arise through regular use and, once established, are recorded in dictionaries and grammars. This means that, with the classical model of grammar in rapid decline, the us ers of English collectively set the standards and priorities that underlie all usage.  (Robert Allen, Usage. The Oxford Companion to the English Language, ed. T. McArthur. Oxford University Press, 1992) Most of the little manuals which pretend to regulate our use of our own language and to declare what is and what is not good English are grotesque in their ignorance; and the best of them are of small value, because they are prepared on the assumption that the English language is dead, like the Latin, and that, like Latin again, its usage is fixed finally. Of course, this assumption is as far as possible from the fact. The English language is alive now- very much alive. And because it is alive it is in a constant state of growth. It is developing daily according to its needs. It is casting aside words and usages that are no longer satisfactory; it is adding new terms as new things are brought forward; and it is making new usages, as convenience suggests, short-cuts across lots, and to the neglect of the five-barred gates rigidly set up by our ancestors.  (Brander Matthews, Parts of Speech: Essays on English, 1901) Usage and Corpus Linguistics English is more diverse than ever in all hemispheres. Research into new Englishes has flourished, supported by journals such as English World-Wide, World Englishes and English Today. At the same time, the quest for a single, international form for written communication becomes more pressing, among those aiming at a global readership...Many kinds of resource have been brought to bear on the style and usage questions raised. The Cambridge Guide to English Usage is the first of its kind to make regular use of large databases (corpora) of computerized texts as primary sources of current English. . . . The corpora embody various kinds of written discourse as well as transcriptions of spoken discourseenough to show patterns of divergence between the two. Negative attitudes to particular idioms or usage often turn on the fact that they are more familiar to the ear than the eye, and the constructions of formal writing are privileged thereby. Corpus data allow us to look more neutrally at the distributions of words and constructions, to view the range of styles across which they operate. On this basis, we can see what is really standard, i.e. usable in many kinds of discourse, as opposed to the formal or informal.  (Pam Peters, The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge University Press, 2004) Linguists and Usage As a field of study, usage doesnt hold much interest for modern linguists, who are drifting more and more toward qualitative psychology and theory. Their leading theorist, Noam Chomsky of MIT, has acknowledged, with no apparent regret, the pedagogical irrelevance of modern linguistics: I am, frankly, rather skeptical about the significance, for the teaching of languages, of such insights and understanding as have been attained in linguistics and psychology ... If you want to learn how to use the English language skillfully and gracefully, books on linguistics wont help you at all.  (Bryan A. Garner, Garners Modern American Usage, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 2009) Correctness In the past, unproven ideas about the Standard have often been used to forward certain social interests at the expense of others. Knowing this, we do not describe the misuse of the conventions of punctuation in some students writing as a crime against civilization, although we do point out the mistakes. What interests us far more is that these apprentice writers have interesting ideas to convey, and manage to support their arguments well. They should be encouraged to turn to the task of writing seriously and enthusiastically rather than be discouraged because they cannot punctuate a restrictive clause correctly. But when they ask, Does spelling count? we tell them that in writing, as in life, everything counts. For academic writers, as for writers in a wide variety of fields (business, journalism, education, etc.), correctness in both content and expression is vital. . . . Language standardization may have been used as a tool of social oppression, but it has also been the vehicle of broad collaboration and communication. We are right to treat usage both warily and seriously.  (Margery Fee and Janice McAlpine, Guide to Canadian English Usage, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 2007)   Usage is trendy, arbitrary, and above all, constantly changing, like all other fashionsin clothing, music, or automobiles. Grammar is the rationale of a language; usage is the etiquette.​  (I. S. Fraser and L. M. Hodson, Twenty-One Kicks at the Grammar Horse. The English Journal, Dec. 1978)   E.B. White on Usage as a Matter of Ear We were interested in what Dr. Henry Seidel Canby had to say about English usage, in the Saturday Review. Usage seems to us peculiarly a matter of ear. Everyone has his own set of rules, his own list of horribles. Dr. Canby speaks of contact used as a verb, and points out that careful writers and speakers, persons of taste, studiously avoid it. They dosome of them, because the word so used, makes their gorge rise, others because they have heard that we sensitive litry folk consider it displeasing. The odd thing is that what is true of one noun-verb is not necessarily true of another. To contact a man makes us wince; but to ground a plane because of bad weather sounds all right. Further, although we are satisfied to ground a plane, we object to garaging an automobile. An automobile should not be garaged; it should either be put in a garage or left out all night.The contraction aint, as Dr. Canby points out, is a great loss to the language. Nice Nellies, schoolteachers, and underdone g rammarians have made it the symbol of ignorance and ill-breeding, when in fact it is a handy word, often serving where nothing else will. Say it aint so is a phrase that is right the way it stands, and couldnt be any different. People are afraid of words, afraid of mistakes. One time a newspaper sent us to a morgue to get a story on a woman whose body was being held for identification. A man believed to be her husband was brought in. Somebody pulled the sheet back; the man took one agonizing look, and cried, My God, its her! When we reported this grim incident, the editor diligently changed it to My God, its she!The English language is always sticking a foot out to trip a man. Every week we get thrown, writing merrily along. Even Dr. Canby, a careful and experienced craftsman, got thrown in his own editorial. He spoke of the makers of textbooks who are nearly always reactionary, and often unscholarly in denying the right to change to a language that has always been changing ... In this case, the word change, quietly sandwiched in between a couple of tos, unexpectedly exploded the whole sentence. Even inverting the phr ases wouldnt have helped. If he had started out, In denying to a language ... the right to change, it would have come out this way: In denying to a language that has always been changing the right to change ... English usage is sometimes more than mere taste, judgment, and educationsometimes its sheer luck, like getting across a street.  (E.B. White, English Usage. The Second Tree From the Corner. Harper Row, 1954) Pronunciation: YOO-sij

Calculations with Negative Numbers

Calculations with Negative Numbers The introduction of negative numbers can become a very confusing concept for some people. The thought of something less than zero or nothing is hard to see in real terms.  For those that find it hard to understand, lets take a look at this in a manner that may be easier to understand. Consider a question such as -5 ? -12.  What is ?.  The basic math is not hard but for some, the answer would appear to be 7. Others may come up with 17 and sometimes even -17.  All these answers have indications of a slight understanding of the concept, but they are incorrect.   We can look at a few of the practices that are used to help with this concept. The first example comes from the financial view.   Consider This Scenario You have 20 dollars but choose to purchase an item for 30 dollars and agree to hand over your 20 dollars and owe 10 more.  Thus in terms of negative numbers,  your cash flow has gone from 20 to -10.  Thus  20 - 30 -10.  This was displayed on a line, but for financial math, the line was usually a timeline, which added complexity above the nature of negative numbers.   The advent of technology and programming languages has added another way to view this concept that may be helpful for many beginners.  In some languages, the act of modifying a current value by adding 2 to the value is shown as   Step 2.  This works nicely with a number line.  So lets say we are currently sitting at -6.  To step 2, you simply move 2 numbers to the right and arrive at -4.  Just the same a move of Step -4 from -6 would be 4 moves to the left ( signified by the (-) minus sign.One more interesting way to view this concept is to use the idea of incremental movements on the number line.  Using the two terms,  increment- to move to the right and decrement- to move to the left,  one can find the answer to negative number issues.  An example:  the act of adding 5 to any number is the same as increment 5.  So should you start at 13,  increment 5 is the same as moving up 5 units on the timeline to arrive at 18. Starting at 8,  to handle -15,  you w ould decrement 15 or move 15 units to the left and arrive at -7.    Try these ideas in conjunction with a number line and you can get over the less than zero issue, a step in the right direction.

Three Positions on Abortion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Three Positions on Abortion - Essay Example The conservative stand rejects abortion at any cost. This position is largely based on religious beliefs regarding the sanctity of life. Conservatives also cite the ‘slippery slope’ argument, where the right to end life could be extended to other situations, such as euthanasia. The liberal position permits abortion unconditionally. Liberals accept various justifications for abortion, including the woman’s right to make decisions over her own body, the quality of life of fetus and mother, and monetary and career considerations. The conservative and liberal positions are both reflections of the uncompromising rigidity which often characterizes any debate on the issue of abortion. On the other hand, the moderate position on abortion recognizes the moral implications it entails, and acknowledges that the rights of the mother and the fetus are in conflict in this situation. Moderates accept the need for abortion, but limit their acceptance to situations entailing defor mity in the fetus, health risks to the mother, and cases of rape and incest. I agree with the moderate position on abortion because of its attempt to reconcile two extreme stands. The moderate position appeals to me as it represents a genuine attempt to reconcile two opposing viewpoints: the conservative and the liberal. ... From the liberal perspective, the moderate position accepts that several mitigating factors, largely concerned with the well-being of the mother, can justify the overruling of the right-to-life of the fetus. However, it rejects a casual attitude towards the suffering of the fetus. This middle-of-the-road position ensures that the issue of abortion can be taken on a case-by-case basis. After all, each case has its own unique circumstances, and the conservative stand of unilaterally ruling out abortion is unacceptable. For example, if the pregnancy poses a risk to the health of the mother, abortion can be justified. Similarly, moderates do not condone abortion out-of-hand. This sets curbs on the overly permissive liberal position, which could generate a laissez-faire attitude towards casual sex and pregnancy. Abortion without any restrictions would lead to sexual permissiveness and lack of responsibility. The moderate position approaches the issue of abortion without any preconceived i deas of morality, and adopts a non-judgmental stand which particularly appeals to me. Just as the moderate position on abortion is a calculated compromise between two extreme viewpoints, it incorporates several ethical approaches into its deliberately balanced stand, and rejects any rigidity. The moderate position, by nature of its flexibility, and willingness to accept compromise, rejects the Deontological Ethical Approach, because the latter emphasizes rigid moral obligation. Moral obligation, without any consideration of the resulting consequences, is foreign to moderates. Similarly, moderates reject the Intuitive Approach, based on the perception that this approach is often individual morality, or personal prejudices, painted in stubborn

Money and the federal reserve system Term Paper

Money and the federal reserve system - Term Paper Example The Federal Reserve had always played an immense role in controlling the financially crucial situations ever originated in the USA. Its instruments come in the form of feasible monetary policies that take care not only of any present crisis but also those of the future. A good example is its mode of activities in the face of the recent global meltdown that not only helped in controlling the crisis but included measures to effectively control any aftermath. The present paper deals with the institution’s monetary policies which from time to time had acted like a shield against an economic crisis, for the country. 2 One of the commonest names which often come up as one of the strongest financial regulatory bodies in the world is that of the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve, often abbreviated as the Fed, being the apex financial institution of USA is responsible for designing the monetary policies of the economy and hence for controlling the flow of money in the nation. Since the amount of money supply is a decisive factor behind the credit availability and hence that of any inflationary developments in an economy, the importance of the institution cannot be slighted. Inflation can often have larger outcomes, ranging from severe unemployment to that of a financial crisis. Thus, there must be an institution in every nation entrusted with taking care of the vice; the Federal Reserve does the job in USA (Schenk, n.d.). The Fed has been conferred the responsible of planning the monetary policies for USA since . Its basic objective had been to work-out a feasible solution given the prevailing economic condition of the economy so as to provide a brighter and better future to the countrymen. However, the string of the ultimate power of the bank is largely bestowed in the hands of the Congress. Recently though, on October 2008, the grips have been loosened a bit and the bank has been given the right to endow